Conservation Strategies for Species Affected by Apparent Competition

Apparent competition is an indirect interaction between 2 or more prey species through a shared predator, and it is increasingly recognized as a mechanism of the decline and extinction of many species. Through case studies, we evaluated the effectiveness of 4 management strategies for species affected by apparent competition: predator control, reduction in the abundances of alternate prey, simultaneous control of predators and alternate prey, and no active management of predators or alternate prey. Solely reducing predator abundances rapidly increased abundances of alternate and rare prey, but observed increases are likely short‐lived due to fast increases in predator abundance following the cessation of control efforts. Substantial reductions of an abundant alternate prey resulted in increased predation on endangered huemul (Hippocamelus bisulcus) deer in Chilean Patagonia, which highlights potential risks associated with solely reducing alternate prey species. Simultaneous removal of predators and alternate prey increased survival of island foxes (Urocyon littoralis) in California (U.S.A.) above a threshold required for population recovery. In the absence of active management, populations of rare woodland caribou (Rangifer tarandus caribou) continued to decline in British Columbia, Canada. On the basis of the cases we examined, we suggest the simultaneous control of predators and alternate prey is the management strategy most likely to increase abundances and probabilities of persistence of rare prey over the long term. Knowing the mechanisms driving changes in species’ abundances before implementing any management intervention is critical. We suggest scientists can best contribute to the conservation of species affected by apparent competition by clearly communicating the biological and demographic forces at play to policy makers responsible for the implementation of proposed management actions. Estrategias de Conservación para Especies Afectadas por Competencia Aparente     

遮阴和盐分对银叶树幼苗光合特性与叶绿素荧光参数的影响

通过比较不同光和盐水平下银叶树(Heritiera littoralis)幼苗的叶绿素含量、光合光响应参数及叶绿素荧光参数的差异,探讨了遮阴和施盐处理下银叶树幼苗的光合生理及适应能力。以银叶树盆栽幼苗为研究对象,以全光无盐为对照,设置遮阴(遮光率为80%)与2.5%盐水处理,经60 d的处理,测定其光合光响应参数、叶绿素荧光参数及叶绿素含量。结果表明,在正常环境下,银叶树光饱和点(LSP)、光补偿点(LCP)及Chla/b分别为1023、28.8μmol·m^?2·s^?1及3.65,属阳性树种。在无盐条件下,遮阴处理导致了叶片叶绿素含量、表观量子效率(AQY)、PSⅡ潜在活性(Fv/Fo)、PSII最大光化学效率(Fv/Fm)及PSⅡ有效光化学量子产量(Fv'/Fm')的升高,却降低了Chl a/b、最大净光合速率(P′max)、LSP、LCP、暗呼吸速率(Rd)、初始荧光(Fo)、PSⅡ实际光合效率(ΦPSⅡ)、表观光合量子传递效率(ETR)、光化学猝灭系数(qP)及非光化学淬灭系数(NPQ)。在全光照或80%的遮阴环境下,盐胁迫均使得叶片叶绿素含量、光合光响应参数(AQY、P′max、LSP)及叶绿素荧光参数(Fm、Fv/Fo)显著下降(P<0.05);而在全光环境下,盐胁迫同样显著降低了Fv/Fm、ΦPSⅡ、ETR(P<0.05),但在遮阴环境下,盐胁迫并没有显著降低叶片Fv/Fm、Fv′/Fm′、ΦPSⅡ及ETR(P>0.05)。盐分对叶片叶绿素含量、光合光响应参数(AQY、P′max及LSP)及叶绿素荧光参数(Fo、Fm、Fv、Fv/Fo、ΦPSⅡ、ETR及NPQ)的影响高于光照,光和盐对叶绿素含量、光合光响应参数(AQY、P′max及LSP)及叶绿素荧光参数的影响没有交互作用。研究表明,银叶树幼苗表现出较高的耐阴性及对弱光的利用能力;盐胁迫使银叶树幼苗发生了明显的光抑制,PSII的光化学活性降低,过剩光能对光系统的破坏的风险增加,光能转换效率与电子传递能力下降,光合作用效率大幅降低。     

Comparative efficacy of certain plant extracts alone and combination with profenofos against Spodoptera littoralis (Boisd.) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

Ethyl alcohol, acetone, and petroleum ether extracts of three plant species belonging to three different botanical families [Strychnos nux-vomica (Loganiaceae), Euphorbia lathyrus (Euphorbiaceae), and Datura stramonlum (Solanaceae)], a chemical insecticide; profenofos and their combinations were tested against second and fourth instars of Spodoptera littoralis under lab conditions. Results revealed that the ethanol extract of S. nux-vomica was the most effective among all plant extracts, where the corrected mortality% were 92, 81, 58, and 27% to 2nd instar and 89, 74, 34, and 11% to 4th instar at concentrations 0.5, 0.25, 0.125, and 0.0625%, respectively. Calculated LC₅₀'s were 0.11, 0.22, and 0.34% to 2nd instar and 0.17, 0.37, and 0.52% to 4th instar for ethanol, petroleum ether, and acetone extracts, respectively. Acetone extracts of all plants were of lower effect. The chemical insecticide profenofos displayed higher efficacy than plant extracts (LC₅₀ = 0.002 and 0.003% for S. littoralis 2nd and 4th larval instars, respectively). The co-toxicity factor reached 76 and 60 when mixing S. nux-vomica + profenofos and D. stramonlum + profenofos at ratio 1:1 against S. littoralis 2nd instar larvae, thus indicating a potentiating effect. While treatment of the 4th instar larvae by the same mixtures resulted in a co-toxicity factor below 20 at all mixing ratios indicating, only, an additive effect against this instar.     

Using Population Viability Criteria to Assess Strategies to Minimize Disease Threats for an Endangered Carnivore

Outbreaks of infectious disease represent serious threats to the viability of many vertebrate populations, but few studies have included quantitative evaluations of alternative approaches to the management of disease. The most prevalent management approach is monitoring for and rapid response to an epizootic. An alternative is vaccination of a subset of the free‐living population (i.e., a “vaccinated core”) such that some individuals are partially or fully immune in the event of an epizootic. We developed a simulation model describing epizootic dynamics, which we then embedded in a demographic simulation to assess these alternative approaches to managing rabies epizootics in the island fox (Urocyon littoralis), a species composed of only 6 small populations on the California Channel Islands. Although the monitor and respond approach was superior to the vaccinated‐core approach for some transmission models and parameter values, this type of reactive management did not protect the population from rabies under many disease‐transmission assumptions. In contrast, a logistically feasible program of prophylactic vaccination for part of the wild population yielded low extinction probabilities across all likely disease‐transmission scenarios, even with recurrent disease introductions. Our use of a single metric of successful management—probability of extreme endangerment (i.e., quasi extinction)—to compare very different management approaches allowed an objective assessment of alternative strategies for controlling the threats posed by infectious disease outbreaks. Utilización de Criterios de Viabilidad Poblacional para Evaluar Estrategias para Minimizar Amenazas de Enfermedades para un Carnívoro en Peligro     

Double Allee Effects and Extinction in the Island Fox

Abstract:  An Allee effect (AE) occurs in populations when individuals suffer a decrease in fitness at low densities. If a fitness component is reduced (component AE), per capita population growth rates may decline as a consequence (demographic AE) and extinction risk is increased. The island fox ( Urocyon littoralis ) is endemic to six of the eight California Channel Islands. Population crashes have coincided with an increase in predation by Golden Eagles ( Aquila chrysaetos ). We propose that AEs could render fox populations more sensitive and may be a likely explanation for their sharp decline. We analyzed demographic data collected between 1988 and 2000 to test whether fox density (1) influences survival and reproductive rates; (2) interacts with eagle presence and affects fox fitness parameters; and (3) influences per capita fox population trends. A double component AE simultaneously influenced survival (of adults and pups) and proportion of breeding adult females. The adult survival AE was driven by predation by eagles. These component AEs led to a demographic AE. Multiple-component AEs, a predation-driven AE, and the simultaneous occurrence of both component and demographic AEs in a mammal are all previously unreported processes. Populations below 7 foxes/km² could have suboptimal population growth rates due to the demographic AE, and AEs may have contributed to the dramatic declines in three fox populations. Because fox densities in critically endangered populations are well below this level, removing Golden Eagles appears necessary to prevent a predation-driven AE. Conservationists should also be aware of AEs when planning the release of captive foxes. More generally, our findings highlight the danger of overlooking AEs in the conservation of populations of rare or threatened species.